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Childhood and Parenting
Written and researched by Bob Murray, PhD
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AMA Adopts Anti-Bully Measure
July 7, 2002
The American Medical Association has now adopted an anti-bullying measure urging doctors to be vigilant at identifying at-risk patients. The policy includes tips to help doctors and parents question children on whether they've been victimized. It also means the AMA will work to change attitudes that tolerate bullying and push for federal research into prevention programs.
While bullying has been viewed as an "inevitable part of growing up," accumulating research suggests that many youngsters who bully have psychiatric or emotional disorders that may be overlooked by physicians, the measure suggests. "There should be zero tolerance for bullying behavior," said AMA board member Dr Ronald Davis.
Psychologists said having an influential group like the AMA take a firm stand against bullying may lead to solutions. "No one group is going to have the capacity to solve the problem," but with the AMA joining the fight, "we have a better shot," Feinberg said.
Dr Carolyn Robinowitz, a member of the council that drafted the new policy, said at least 10 percent of US children have either been victimized or are bullies themselves, and many more are indirectly affected by observing the disturbing behavior in others.
The policy lists symptoms that doctors and parents should watch for, including:
- Increased school absences
- Frequent crying
- Low self-esteem
- Lack of empathy
- Unexplained bouts of rage or sullenness
Physical symptoms may include recurrent sleep problems, bed-wetting or headaches.
Read more in Johns Hopkins' site InteliHealth
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Abused Kids See Emotion Differently
June 24, 2002
Because people recognize the same emotions across languages and cultures, psychologists have long suspected that a person's ability to perceive basic emotions is innate.
However, a new study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences suggests that experience can alter the way people see emotions. Led by University of Wisconsin-Madison psychologist Seth Pollak, the study examined how children categorize facial expressions as happy, sad, angry or fearful based on one particular emotional experience -- physical abuse.
Studying children who had been abused, Pollak says, offered an opportunity both to examine the effects of atypical experience on how children think about emotions and to possibly identify new interventions that could help abused children more effectively manage resulting behavioral problems.
For this study, Pollak invited both abused and non-abused children, 8 to 10 years old, to his Child Emotion Research Laboratory. There, they played computer "games" that presented digitally morphed photos of facial expressions that ranged from happy to fearful, happy to sad, angry to fearful, or angry to sad. While some of the faces expressed a single emotion, most were blends of two emotions.
In one of the games, the children saw a single face and had to choose which emotion it expressed the most. Because many images were a composite of emotions, this task allowed the researchers to determine how the children perceived different expressions.
Pollak, along with colleague Doris Kistler from the Waisman Center, found that the two groups of children did categorize emotional expressions differently. While both abused and non-abused children generally responded the same way to expressions showing mostly happiness, sadness or fear, abused children identified more faces as being "angry," rather than fearful or sad. Even though an expression would show, for example, 60 percent fear and 40 percent anger, abused children would identify the latter emotion.
"There aren't differences in how the children recognize pictures of faces, but in how they categorize those faces. The abused children were more sensitive to anger," Pollak says. "Experience can shift where a person draws the boundary of a particular emotion, and this idea runs counter to claims that boundaries for emotions are innate."
Pollak says that the neural processes the brain uses to perceive and categorize emotion might be innate but that how people actually perceive and understand expressions of emotion can be shaped by experience.
Pollak's latest finding confirms the results of one of the psychologist's earlier studies, which found that children who were abused exhibited more brain electrical activity than non-abused children when shown angry faces, as opposed to other facial expressions.
"It may be the case that physically abused children develop a broader category of anger because it's adaptive for them to notice when adults are angry," he says.
But while this sensitivity could be protective in a threatening environment, it could be disadvantageous in others. An abused child might over-interpret a social cue, such as an accidental ball toss during recess, to be hostile. As a result, the child might try to protect himself by lashing out, calling names or exhibiting other inappropriate behaviors. By recognizing an abused child's sensitivity to cues of anger, Pollak says, psychologists may be able to help these children respond more appropriately.
Read more in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
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Eating Disorders Caused by Television Viewing
June 10, 2002
The new findings, reported in the British Journal of Psychiatry, come from a major study examining the impact of the introduction of television in two towns in the Pacific islands of Fiji.
Dr Anne Becker and colleagues from Harvard Medical School found that levels of poor body image and incidents of eating disorders among girls have increased since they were first exposed to television.
In a country where girls traditionally have good appetites and larger body shapes, many girls now vomit to control their weight, are on diets and believe they are too fat. The doctors interviewed and tested two sets of Fijian schoolgirls within a few weeks of the introduction of television to the area of Nadroga in 1995 and then again in 1998. In 1995, the number of girls who self-induced vomiting to control their weight was zero. But three years after the introduction of television, that figure had reached 11%.
They also found that dieting had become commonplace. In 1998, 69% of those studied said they had gone on diets to lose weight and 74% said they thought they were "too big or fat." The study showed that girls living in houses with a television set were three times more likely to show symptoms of eating disorders. In interviews, the girls said they admired television characters and tried to copy them.
The doctors said it is possible that Fijian girls are particularly vulnerable to developing eating disorders given the difference between ethnic body shapes and media images. This may be compounded by the fact that they may link the slender bodies of people on television with other status symbols such as expensive clothes and careers. They may also be unaware that television images are contrived and edited, the doctors said.
TV in Bedrooms Not a Good Idea
Separately Columbia University researchers carried out a study involving 2,700 adults with pre-school children which investigated their viewing habits. They found overweight children were significantly more likely to spend longer each day watching TV or videos. Viewing time rose when there was a TV set in the bedroom, with children watching 4.8 hours more TV or videos a week than those without.
A report in Pediatrics, the journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics, said: "It is of note that a TV set in the child's bedroom was more strongly associated with increased risk of a child being overweight." But it says the reasons weren't clear. It added: "Children with a TV set in their bedroom might watch even more TV than parents are aware, or a TV in the bedroom might be a marker for other behaviors that contribute to child obesity."
The paper says doctors in the US are advising parents to take TVs out of children's rooms.
Read more in the journal Pediatrics
Read more in British Journal of Psychiatry
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Smacking and Spanking Under Threat
May 20, 2002
If you hit someone else's child it was thought of as assault and could land you in the slammer, but if you did the same to your own it was thought of as "normal." No more. On one hand researchers are finding out that hitting a child can do lasting harm -- and not only to the child -- and on the other hand lawmakers are extending protection against assault from their parents to young children.
Most parents who smack their children feel bad and apologetic afterwards, according to a survey released by the NSPCC yesterday. Four out of 10 mothers and fathers said they even felt like crying after inflicting physical punishment on their offspring, while 69 per cent actually said "sorry" to their children.
The National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children published its research on Children's Day to highlight what it described as a cycle of physical punishment. Seven out of 10 parents who were hit as a child were more likely to repeat the behavior with their own offspring, according to the NSPCC survey of 1,600 parents, conducted by the polling organization, Mori.
Mary Marsh, director of the NSPCC, said: "Parents feel terrible after hitting their children. They clearly need and want alternatives." The NSPCC's advice to parents to help them avoid smacking includes going to another room and screaming at the walls, counting to 10 and distracting the children.
At the same time Scottish lawmakers are pressing ahead with plans to make spanking illegal. Under proposals published recently, any parent who smacks a child under the age of three, or who uses a belt, slipper, cane or any other "implement" on a child of any age, will be liable to prosecution. The Scottish justice minister, Jim Wallace, said responsible parents need not fear being criminalized by the legislation. The National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children said similar measures should be introduced across the rest of the United Kingdom as soon as was practicable.
Mr Wallace said the new legislation merely clarified the existing law on assault and played down fears that the legislation would become a "nosy parker's charter" by saying parents would not be prosecuted for "trivial" smacks.
In the Uplift and our practice, we often see the results of childhood physical punishment. They include violence, low self-esteem, guilt, seeking abuse or painful therapies or surgery, chronic pain and poor posture. AF
Read more in the UK Daily Telegraph
Read more in the UK Guardian
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Lack of Quality in Family Life Underlies Drug Problem
May 20, 2002
The barrier that good parents can provide for their children against the drug culture is beginning to break down in cities where drugs are most freely available, researchers have found. But the international study, led by Newcastle University in England, concluded that having a caring mother was the single most important factor in preventing youngsters from taking drugs.
The study, funded by the European Commission, found that 14- and 15-year-olds were far less likely to have drug and alcohol habits if they lived with both parents, were properly supervised and enjoyed high quality family relationships.
The research team, led by Dr Paul McArdle of Newcastle University's Department of Child Health, found evidence that these protective effects were being eroded in areas where drug availability was particularly high. This was probably due to the additional peer pressure on teenagers to try drugs.
The one exception was among teenagers who had strong attachments to their mothers, which was found to remain a very effective barrier to drug abuse even in areas of high availability.
The research team commented that their findings underlined the role of families but especially "the unique role of mothers in regulating the behavior of the great majority of young people."
Dr McArdle and his colleagues analyzed the answers to questionnaires filled in by 3,984 youngsters, aged 14-15, selected at random from cities in England, Eire, Italy, Germany and the Netherlands. The youngsters were asked whether they took drugs such as cannabis, amphetamines, ecstasy, LSD or tranquilizers or were regular alcohol drinkers. They were also asked whether they lived with both parents and a series of questions designed to assess the quality of their relationships and how well they were supervised.
Questions included whether their parents cared about them watching excessive TV, whether someone was at home after school, whether they were allowed to meet friends at home and whether they felt able to confide in their mother, father or grandparents.
The study found that quality of family life, particularly attachment to the mother, was the factor offering the greatest protection to teenagers against developing drug habits. Living with both parents was less important but also offered significant protection.
When both of these factors were present, the rate of drug abuse among the teenagers surveyed was 16.6 per cent. The figure rose to about 32 percent if either one factor was present but not the other. If neither factor was present, 42.3 per cent of the teenagers used drugs.
Dr McArdle said "This study shows that the quality of family life, or rather the lack of it for many young people, is at the core of the drugs problem in Western society. Yet this message is largely absent from drug prevention campaigns. We spell out the dangers of drug abuse to children on TV and launch drug prevention initiatives in schools -- but it seems that no-one is really tackling the issue of parental responsibility."
Reported in Uniscience
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Arguments Hurt Parents More Than Teens
May 3, 2002
Every parent is familiar with that look of martyred resignation adopted by teenagers convinced that their entire life has been ruined by ignorant elders. In fact, it is the parents who suffer far more emotional and psychological damage from family rows, according to an expert on adolescence.
While teenagers may affect short sulks in their bedrooms, they are much more resilient than people assume, the annual conference of the National Family and Parenting Institute in London will be told on Thursday. It is parents who are vulnerable and sensitive, brooding over arguments long after their children have forgotten about them.
Laurence Steinberg, of Temple University, Philadelphia, argues that the popular stereotypes exploited by comedians -- such as Harry Enfield's whingeing Kevin -- are wrong. He says that parents who tip-toe around moody adolescents for fear of hurting their delicate feelings do not realize that in general teenagers recover from upsetting situations more quickly than they do.
Parents should protect themselves against the emotional harm inflicted on them by teenagers by adopting a more authoritative style of parenting. "In our unsuccessful quest to document the storm and stress of adolescence, I believe that we have not paid enough attention to the mental health and psychological needs of parents with teenagers," Professor Steinberg will tell the conference.
"Parents are more bothered by the bickering and squabbling that takes place during this time than are adolescents."
Teenagers recover more quickly than their parents from rows because while the adults perceive the argument to center on an immutable social or moral code of right and wrong, teenagers perceive it simply as a matter of personal choice."
A typical row over an untidy room would be seen by the teenager as a clear matter of personal choice: if he or she wants to live in a room filled with dirty socks and half-eaten plates of food, he or she should be allowed to. Parents, however, tend to see the child's behavior in terms of long-term moral values.
"Parents may see them as rejections of basic values that they have tried to instil in the teenager and, as such, as a violation of their expectations. But the adolescent, in contrast, imbues the conflict with far less meaning. This is why it is the parent, and not the adolescent, who walks away upset and who stays upset."
These daily rows take their toll on the mental health of parents, especially mothers, who still bear the brunt of child-rearing in most households, Professor Steinberg says. Forty per cent of parents of teenagers studied by the professor in a series of research projects involving thousands of individuals over a decade experienced at least two of the following: lowered self-esteem, diminished life satisfaction increased anxiety and depression.
Research shows that an effective antidote is a stricter parenting style. "The authoritative parent is warm and involved, but is firm and consistent in establishing and enforcing guidelines, limits and expectations," he says. Not only do adolescents raised in authoritative homes achieve more in school, report less depression and anxiety and have higher levels of self-esteem, they are also less likely to engage in antisocial behavior, delinquency and drug use.
Read more in Temple University's Temple Times
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Psychological Maltreatment Defined
May 3, 2002
A new report from the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) identifies parents' actions that may amount to psychological maltreatment of children, as well as the consequences of such actions.
According to the report, "The Psychological Maltreatment of Children," psychological maltreatment is "a repeated pattern of damaging interactions between parent(s) and child that becomes typical of the relationship." Psychological maltreatment makes a child feel worthless, unloved, endangered, or as if his or her only value is in meeting someone else's needs.
Some examples include: belittling, degrading, or ridiculing a child; terrorizing a child by committing life-threatening acts or making him or her feel unsafe; exploiting or corrupting a child; failing to express affection, caring, and love; and neglecting mental health, medical or educational needs.
When such behaviors are severe and/or repetitious, children may experience problems that include: emotional troubles ranging from low self-esteem to suicidal thoughts; antisocial behaviors; low academic achievement; and impaired physical health.
As negative effects on the child can be reduced with early recognition, reporting and therapy, the report says pediatricians should recognize psychological maltreatment and the risk factors that predispose families to abuse.
Bravo! It's about time that a clear definition of "psychological maltreatment" of children was forthcoming. This is a really important statement. BM
Read more on Intelihealth from Johns Hopkins University
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Scotland Proposes Ban on Smacking
May 3, 2002
The Scottish justice minister, Jim Wallace, said responsible parents need not fear being criminalised by the legislation. The National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children said similar measures should be introduced across the rest of the country as soon as was practicable.
But criticism has been heaped on the executive in anticipation of its publications yesterday, and newspaper opinion polls have shown that an overwhelming majority of Scots are opposed to an outright ban on smacking.
Mr Wallace said the new legislation merely clarified the existing law on assault and played down fears that the legislation would become a "nosy parker's charter" by saying parents would not be prosecuted for "trivial" smacks.
When will society come to realize that it's never right to hit a young child? Hitting a child under six predisposes that child to either abusive relationships in later life or to becoming an abuser. To cut down on spousal and child abuse tough laws need to be enacted. BM
Read more in The Guardian
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When "R" Stands for Risky for Teenagers
March 11, 2002
The findings appear in the current issue of Effective Clinical Practice. The lead author, Dr Madeline A Dalton, and her colleagues based their report on a survey of 4,544 students in the fifth through eighth grades in New Hampshire.
R-rated movies are supposed to be restricted for viewers under 17, and 90 percent of the students surveyed were younger than 14. Just 16 percent of the students said they were never allowed to watch R-rated moves, although among this group many reported seeing some anyway. The researchers said they had found a "striking association" between viewing restrictions and low rates of smoking and drinking.
In the survey, a third of the students who had no movie restrictions reported having tried smoking. Only 2 percent of those who were not allowed to watch R-rated movies said they had smoked. Forty-six percent of the first group said they had tried alcohol, but 4 percent in the second had.
Of course this juvenile audience for films and adult TV is why tobacco companies spend so much money on cigarette placements in films and TV programs. BM
Read more in Effective Clinical Practice
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Fathers Can Raise School Results
March 11, 2002
A study over four decades has found that the involvement of fathers when children are aged seven is "strongly related to later educational attainment." According to the researchers the benefits of father involvement include:
- Better educational attainment
- Less likelihood of trouble with police
- Good relationships in adolescence and adulthood
- Manual workers' sons less likely to become homeless
- Children in separated families protected against later mental health problems
As a result of the findings the UK Department for Education recently began a campaign aimed at encouraging fathers to be more involved in their sons' schooling. It is using a footballing theme, with the slogan "Fathers and Sons -- A Winning Team," bolstered by the presence of Manchester United and England stars Gary and Phil Neville and their father.
The research from Oxford University, due to be published next month, also says that strong father-child relationships can reduce the incidence of mental health problems in later life. Criminality and homelessness in adulthood were also less likely when a father had been involved in children's upbringing, reported Ann Buchanan and Eirini Flouri at the University's Centre for Research into Parenting and Children.
But this did not necessarily mean that parents had to stay together -- separated fathers could exert a positive influence by becoming involved in activities such as listening to children read or helping with homework. And step fathers were also found to provide a boost to children's learning.
The research findings were based on a study of 17,000 children born in 1958, who were tracked through stages of their lives. Involvement was identified by factors such as sharing an equal role to mothers in managing children, taking an interest in their children's education and going on outings with them.
The researchers say the findings have "important implications for work-life balance" and that workplaces should be more "father friendly" in allowing parents to have time with their children.
Separately, a survey commissioned by the Department for Education suggests that only 12% of UK men claimed to be more involved than their partner in their children's education, compared with 72% of women. However three quarters of the men with school-aged children said they would like to be more involved.
If we look at the parental situation from the perspective of anthropology and evolution it seems obvious that human males will need to spend time with their fathers from the age of six or seven -- the age at which boys typically learn to be men. With girls it may not be so critical. BM
Read more in BBC News
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About the Author
Dr Bob Murray is a widely published psychologist and expert on emotional health and optimal relationships. Together with his wife and long-term collaborator Alicia Fortinberry, he is founder of the highly successful Uplift Program, and author of Raising an Optimistic Child (McGraw-Hill, 2006) and Creating Optimism (McGraw-Hill, 2004).
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